ssri与snri合用:伟大人物的英语简介

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html
Newton, Isaac (1642-1727)

English physicist and mathematician who was born into a poor farming family. Luckily for humanity, Newton was not a good farmer, and was sent to Cambridge to study to become a preacher. At Cambridge, Newton studied mathematics, being especially strongly influenced by Euclid, although he was also influenced by Baconian and Cartesian philosophies. Newton was forced to leave Cambridge when it was closed because of the plague, and it was during this period that he made some of his most significant discoveries. With the reticence he was to show later in life, Newton did not, however, publish his results.

Newton suffered a mental breakdown in 1675 and was still recovering through 1679. In response to a letter from Hooke, he suggested that a particle, if released, would spiral in to the center of the Earth. Hooke wrote back, claiming that the path would not be a spiral, but an ellipse. Newton, who hated being bested, then proceeded to work out the mathematics of orbits. Again, he did not publish his calculations. Newton then began devoting his efforts to theological speculation and put the calculations on elliptical motion aside, telling Halley he had lost them (Westfall 1993, p. 403). Halley, who had become interested in orbits, finally convinced Newton to expand and publish his calculations. Newton devoted the period from August 1684 to spring 1686 to this task, and the result became one of the most important and influential works on physics of all times, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687), often shortened to Principia Mathematica or simply "the Principia."

In Book I of Principia, Newton opened with definitions and the three laws of motion now known as Newton's laws (laws of inertia, action and reaction, and acceleration proportional to force). Book II presented Newton's new scientific philosophy which came to replace Cartesianism. Finally, Book III consisted of applications of his dynamics, including an explanation for tides and a theory of lunar motion. To test his hypothesis of universal gravitation, Newton wrote Flamsteed to ask if Saturn had been observed to slow down upon passing Jupiter. The surprised Flamsteed replied that an effect had indeed been observed, and it was closely predicted by the calculations Newton had provided. Newton's equations were further confirmed by observing the shape of the Earth to be oblate spheroidal, as Newton claimed it should be, rather than prolate spheroidal, as claimed by the Cartesians. Newton's equations also described the motion of Moon by successive approximations, and correctly predicted the return of Halley's Comet. Newton also correctly formulated and solved the first ever problem in the calculus of variations which involved finding the surface of revolution which would give minimum resistance to flow (assuming a specific drag law).

Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology as a set of four rules for scientific reasoning. These rules were stated in the Principia and proposed that (1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances, (2) the same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes, (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal, and (4) propositions deduced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them.

These four concise and universal rules for investigation were truly revolutionary. By their application, Newton formulated the universal laws of nature with which he was able to unravel virtually all the unsolved problems of his day. Newton went much further than outlining his rules for reasoning, however, actually describing how they might be applied to the solution of a given problem. The analytic method he invented far exceeded the more philosophical and less scientifically rigorous approaches of Aristotle and Aquinas. Newton refined Galileo's experimental method, creating the compositional method of experimentation still practiced today. In fact, the following description of the experimental method from Newton's Optics could easily be mistaken for a modern statement of current methods of investigation, if not for Newton's use of the words "natural philosophy" in place of the modern term "the physical sciences." Newton wrote, "As in mathematics, so in natural philosophy the investigation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought ever to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists of making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by induction...by this way of analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and from motions to the forces producing them; and in general from effects to their causes, and from particular causes to more general ones till the argument end in the most general. This is the method of analysis: and the synthesis consists in assuming the causes discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena preceding from them, and proving the explanations."

Newton formulated the classical theories of mechanics and optics and invented calculus years before Leibniz. However, he did not publish his work on calculus until afterward Leibniz had published his. This led to a bitter priority dispute between English and continental mathematicians which persisted for decades, to the detriment of all concerned. Newton discovered that the binomial theorem was valid for fractional powers, but left it for Wallis to publish (which he did, with appropriate credit to Newton). Newton formulated a theory of sound, but derived a speed which did not agree with his experiments. The reason for the discrepancy was that the concept of adiabatic propagation did not yet exist, so Newton's answer was too low by a factor of , where is the ratio of heat capacities of air. Newton therefore fudged his theory until agreement was achieved (Engineering and Science, pp. 15-16).

In Optics (1704), whose publication Newton delayed until Hooke's death, Newton observed that white light could be separated by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, each characterized by a unique refractivity, and proposed the corpuscular theory of light. Newton's views on optics were born out of the original prism experiments he performed at Cambridge. In his "experimentum crucis" (crucial experiment), he found that the image produced by a prism was oval-shaped and not circular, as current theories of light would require. He observed a half-red, half-blue string through a prism, and found the ends to be disjointed. He also observed Newton's rings, which are actually a manifestation of the wave nature of light which Newton did not believe in. Newton believed that light must move faster in a medium when it is refracted towards the normal, in opposition to the result predicted by Huygens's wave theory.

Newton also formulated a system of chemistry in Query 31 at the end of Optics. In this corpuscular theory, "elements" consisted of different arrangements of atoms, and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-like particles. He explained chemical reactions in terms of the chemical affinities of the participating substances. Newton devoted a majority of his free time later in life (after 1678) to fruitless alchemical experiments.

Newton was extremely sensitive to criticism, and even ceased publishing until the death of his arch-rival Hooke. It was only through the prodding of Halley that Newton was persuaded at all to publish the Principia Mathematica. In the latter portion of his life, he devoted much of his time to alchemical researches and trying to date events in the Bible. After Newton's death, his burial place was moved. During the exhumation, it was discovered that Newton had massive amounts of mercury in his body, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. This would certainly explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. Newton was appointed Warden of the British Mint in 1695. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. However, the act was "an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705" (Westfall 1993, p. 625).

Newton singlehandedly contributed more to the development of science than any other individual in history. He surpassed all the gains brought about by the great scientific minds of antiquity, producing a scheme of the universe which was more consistent, elegant, and intuitive than any proposed before. Newton stated explicit principles of scientific methods which applied universally to all branches of science. This was in sharp contradistinction to the earlier methodologies of Aristotle and Aquinas, which had outlined separate methods for different disciplines.

Although his methodology was strictly logical, Newton still believed deeply in the necessity of a God. His theological views are characterized by his belief that the beauty and regularity of the natural world could only "proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being." He felt that "the Supreme God exists necessarily, and by the same necessity he exists always and everywhere." Newton believed that God periodically intervened to keep the universe going on track. He therefore denied the importance of Leibniz's vis viva as nothing more than an interesting quantity which remained constant in elastic collisions and therefore had no physical importance or meaning.

Although earlier philosophers such as Galileo and John Philoponus had used experimental procedures, Newton was the first to explicitly define and systematize their use. His methodology produced a neat balance between theoretical and experimental inquiry and between the mathematical and mechanical approaches. Newton mathematized all of the physical sciences, reducing their study to a rigorous, universal, and rational procedure which marked the ushering in of the Age of Reason. Thus, the basic principles of investigation set down by Newton have persisted virtually without alteration until modern times. In the years since Newton's death, they have borne fruit far exceeding anything even Newton could have imagined. They form the foundation on which the technological civilization of today rests. The principles expounded by Newton were even applied to the social sciences, influencing the economic theories of Adam Smith and the decision to make the United States legislature bicameral. These latter applications, however, pale in contrast to Newton's scientific contributions.

It is therefore no exaggeration to identify Newton as the single most important contributor to the development of modern science. The Latin inscription on Newton's tomb, despite its bombastic language, is thus fully justified in proclaiming, "Mortals! rejoice at so great an ornament to the human race!" Alexander Pope's couplet is also apropos: "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, Let Newton be! and all was light."

Hu Jintao 胡锦涛

Hu Jintao was elected president of the People's Republic of China on March 15, 2003.

He is now general secretary of the CPC Central Committee, president of the People's Republic of China, chairman of the Central Military Commission.

Hu Jintao, a native of Jixi, Anhui Province, was born in December 1942. He joined the Communist Party of China (CPC) in April 1964 and began to work in July 1965 after he graduated from the Water Conservancy Engineering Department of Tsinghua University, where he had a major in the study of hub hydropower stations. He is an engineer.

Hu began to work at the grassroots in west China's Gansu Province in 1968 and stayed there until 1982 when he became a member of the Secretariat of the Communist Youth League of China Central Committee and president of the All-China Youth Federation.

Beginning in 1985, he was appointed, successively, secretary of the CPC Guizhou Provincial Committee and of the CPC Tibet Autonomous Regional Committee.

In 1992, 49-year-old Hu was elected member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee at the First Plenum of the 14th CPC Central Committee, which was then widely considered as an important step the CPC had taken toward generational transition of the central leadership.

From 1993 to the end of 2002, Hu was concurrently president of the Party School of the CPC Central Committee, which has been the training base for senior CPC cadres and backbones of theoretical studies over the past 70 years.

In September 1997, Hu was re-elected member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee at the First Plenum of the 15th CPC Central Committee.

Hu became vice-president of China in March 1998 and vice-chairman of the Central Military Commission in September 1999.

In November 2002, Hu was elected general secretary of the CPC Central Committee at the 16th National Congress of the CPC.

In March 2003, He was elected president of China at the First Session of the 10th National People's Congress, the top legislature of the country.

Hu and his wife Liu Yongqing were schoolmates at Qinghua University. The couple have a son and a daughter, who are also graduates of Qinghua University.

1959-1964: Student at the Water Conservancy Engineering Department of Tsinghua University.

1964-1965: Postgraduate and political instructor at the Water Conservancy Engineering Department of Tsinghua University.

1965-1968: Participated in R&D at the Water Conservancy Engineering Department of Tsinghua University and served as political instructor before the start of the "cultural revolution."

1968-1969: Worked with the housing construction team of Liujia Gorge Engineering Bureau, Ministry of Water Conservancy.

1969-1974: Technician and secretary of No. 813 Sub-Bureau, Fourth Engineering Bureau, Ministry of Water Conservancy and deputy-secretary of the general Party branch of the sub-bureau's head office.

1974-1975: Secretary of the Gansu Provincial Construction Committee (GPCC).

1975-1980: Deputy director of the design management division, GPCC.

1980-1982: Vice chairman of GPCC and secretary of the Gansu Provincial Committee of the Communist Youth League (Sept.1982-Dec.1982).

1982-1984: Secretary of the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Communist Youth League of China, chairman of the All-China Youth Federation.

1984-1985: First secretary, Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Communist Youth League of China.

1985-1988: Secretary of the Guizhou Provincial Party Committee.

1988-1992: Secretary of the Party Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region.

1992-1993: Member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, and member of the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee.

1993-1998: Member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, member of the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee, president of the Party School of the CPC Central Committee.

1998-1999: Member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, member of the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee, vice president of the People's Republic of China, president of the Party School of the CPC Central Committee.

1999-2002: Member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, member of the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee, vice chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, vice president of the People's Republic of China, vice chairman of the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China, president of the Party School of the CPC Central Committee.

2002-March 2003: General secretary of the CPC Central Committee, vice chairman of the Central Military Commission, and vice president of the People's Republic of China.

He was an alternate member, member of the 12th CPC Central Committee, member of the 13th, 14th and 15th CPC Central Committees and is a member of the 16th CPC Central Committee. He was a member of the Political Bureau and its Standing Committee, and member of the Secretariat of the 14th and 15th CPC Central Committees and is a member of the Political Bureau and of its Standing Committee, and general secretary of the 16th CPC Central Committee. He was made an additional vice chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 15th CPC Central Committee. He was a member of the Standing Committee of the 6th National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).

He succeeded Jiang Zemin as chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission at the Fourth Plenum of the 16th CPC Central Committee, which ended in Beijing Sept 19, 2004.
胡锦涛

中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中华人民共和国主席，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席。

男，汉族，1942年12月生，安徽绩溪人，1964年4月加入中国共产党，1965年7月参加工作，清华大学水利工程系河川枢纽电站专业毕业，大学学历，工程师。

1959年━1964年 清华大学水利工程系学习

1964年━1965年 清华大学水利工程系学习，并任政治辅导员

1965年━1968年 清华大学水利工程系参加科研工作，并任政治辅导员（“文化大革命”开始后终止）

1968年━1969年 水电部刘家峡工程局房建队劳动

1969年━1974年 水电部第四工程局八一三分局技术员、秘书、机关党总支副书记

1974年━1975年 甘肃省建委秘书

1975年━1980年 甘肃省建委设计管理处副处长

1980年━1982年 甘肃省建委副主任，共青团甘肃省委书记（1982年9月━12月）

1982年━1984年 共青团中央书记处书记，全国青联主席

1984年━1985年 共青团中央书记处第一书记

1985年━1988年 贵州省委书记，贵州省军区党委第一书记

1988年━1992年 西藏自治区党委书记，西藏军区党委第一书记

1992年━1993年 中央政治局常委、中央书记处书记

1993年━1998年 中央政治局常委、中央书记处书记，中央党校校长

1998年━1999年 中央政治局常委、中央书记处书记，中华人民共和国副主席，中央党校校长

1999年━2002年 中央政治局常委、中央书记处书记、中共中央军事委员会副主席，中华人民共和国副主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会副主席，中央党校校长

2002年━2003年3月 中央委员会总书记、中共中央军事委员会副主席，中华人民共和国副主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会副主席，中央党校校长（2002年12月不再兼任）

2003年3月━2004年9月 中央委员会总书记、中共中央军事委员会副主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会副主席

2004年9月━2005年3月 中央委员会总书记、中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会副主席

2005年3月━ 中央委员会总书记、中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席

中共第十二届中央委员会候补委员、委员，第十三届、十四届、十五届、十六届中央委员会委员，第十四届、十五届中央政治局委员、常委、中央书记处书记，第十六届中央政治局委员、常委。第六届全国政协常务委员。

夫人：刘永清。他们有一子一女。