风神ax7和景逸x5哪个好:柏拉图是谁

柏拉图（Plato,前427—前347）是古希腊最著名的哲学家和教育家，出生于雅典一个奴隶主贵族家庭。

Plato (circa 428-c. 347 BC), Greek philosopher, one of the most creative and influential thinkers in Western philosophy.

Life

Plato was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. His father, Ariston, was believed to have descended from the early kings of Athens. Perictione, his mother, was distantly related to the 6th- century BC lawmaker Solon. When Plato was a child, his father died, and his mother married Pyrilampes, who was an associate of the statesman Pericles.

As a young man Plato had political ambitions, but he became disillusioned by the political leadership in Athens. He eventually became a disciple of Socrates, accepting his basic philosophy and dialectical style of debate: the pursuit of truth through questions, answers, and additional questions. Plato witnessed the death of Socrates at the hands of the Athenian democracy in 399 BC. Perhaps fearing for his own safety, he left Athens temporarily and traveled to Italy, Sicily, and Egypt.

In 387 Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the institution often described as the first European university. It provided a comprehensive curriculum, including such subjects as astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. Aristotle was the Academy's most prominent student.

Pursuing an opportunity to combine philosophy and practical politics, Plato went to Sicily in 367 to tutor the new ruler of Syracuse, Dionysius the Younger, in the art of philosophical rule. The experiment failed. Plato made another trip to Syracuse in 361, but again his engagement in Sicilian affairs met with little success. The concluding years of his life were spent lecturing at the Academy and writing. He died at about the age of 80 in Athens in 348 or 347 BC.

Works

Plato's writings were in dialogue form; philosophical ideas were advanced, discussed, and criticized in the context of a conversation or debate involving two or more persons. The earliest collection of Plato's work includes 35 dialogues and 13 letters. The authenticity of a few of the dialogues and most of the letters has been disputed.

Early Dialogues

The dialogues may be divided into early, middle, and later periods of composition. The earliest represent Plato's attempt to communicate the philosophy and dialectical style of Socrates. Several of these dialogues take the same form. Socrates, encountering someone who claims to know much, professes to be ignorant and seeks assistance from the one who knows. As Socrates begins to raise questions, however, it becomes clear that the one reputed to be wise really does not know what he claims to know, and Socrates emerges as the wiser one because he at least knows that he does not know. Such knowledge, of course, is the beginning of wisdom. Included in this group of dialogues are Charmides (an attempt to define temperance), Lysis (a discussion of friendship), Laches (a pursuit of the meaning of courage), Protagoras (a defense of the thesis that virtue is knowledge and can be taught), Euthyphro (a consideration of the nature of piety), and Book I of the Republic (a discussion of justice).

Middle and Late Dialogues

The dialogues of the middle and later periods of Plato's life reflect his own philosophical development. The ideas in these works are attributed by most scholars to Plato himself, although Socrates continues to be the main character in many of the dialogues. The writings of the middle period include Gorgias (a consideration of several ethical questions), Meno (a discussion of the nature of knowledge), the Apology (Socrates' defense of himself at his trial against the charges of atheism and corrupting Athenian youth), Crito (Socrates' defense of obedience to the laws of the state), Phaedo (the death scene of Socrates, in which he discusses the theory of Forms, the nature of the soul, and the question of immortality), the Symposium (Plato's outstanding dramatic achievement, which contains several speeches on beauty and love), the Republic (Plato's supreme philosophical achievement, which is a detailed discussion of the nature of justice). The works of the later period include the Theaetetus (a denial that knowledge is to be identified with sense perception), Parmenides (a critical evaluation of the theory of Forms), Sophist (further consideration of the theory of Ideas, or Forms), Philebus (a discussion of the relationship between pleasure and the good), Timaeus (Plato's views on natural science and cosmology), and the Laws (a more practical analysis of political and social issues).

Theory of Forms

At the heart of Plato's philosophy is his theory of Forms, or Ideas. Ultimately, his view of knowledge, his ethical theory, his psychology, his concept of the state, and his perspective on art must be understood in terms of this theory.

Theory of Knowledge

Plato's theory of Forms and his theory of knowledge are so interrelated that they must be discussed together. Influenced by Socrates, Plato was convinced that knowledge is attainable. He was also convinced of two essential characteristics of knowledge. First, knowledge must be certain and infallible. Second, knowledge must have as its object that which is genuinely real as contrasted with that which is an appearance only. Because that which is fully real must, for Plato, be fixed, permanent, and unchanging, he identified the real with the ideal realm of being as opposed to the physical world of becoming. One consequence of this view was Plato's rejection of empiricism, the claim that knowledge is derived from sense experience. He thought that propositions derived from sense experience have, at most, a degree of probability. They are not certain. Furthermore, the objects of sense experience are changeable phenomena of the physical world. Hence, objects of sense experience are not proper objects of knowledge.

Plato's own theory of knowledge is found in the Republic, particularly in his discussion of the image of the divided line and the myth of the cave. In the former, Plato distinguishes between two levels of awareness: opinion and knowledge. Claims or assertions about the physical or visible world, including both commonsense observations and the propositions of science, are opinions only. Some of these opinions are well founded; some are not; but none of them counts as genuine knowledge. The higher level of awareness is knowledge, because there reason, rather than sense experience, is involved. Reason, properly used, results in intellectual insights that are certain, and the objects of these rational insights are the abiding universals, the eternal Forms or substances that constitute the real world.

The myth of the cave describes individuals chained deep within the recesses of a cave. Bound so that vision is restricted, they cannot see one another. The only thing visible is the wall of the cave upon which appear shadows cast by models or statues of animals and objects that are passed before a brightly burning fire. Breaking free, one of the individuals escapes from the cave into the light of day. With the aid of the sun, that person sees for the first time the real world and returns to the cave with the message that the only things they have seen heretofore are shadows and appearances and that the real world awaits them if they are willing to struggle free of their bonds. The shadowy environment of the cave symbolizes for Plato the physical world of appearances. Escape into the sun-filled setting outside the cave symbolizes the transition to the real world, the world of full and perfect being, the world of Forms, which is the proper object of knowledge.

Nature of Forms

The theory of Forms may best be understood in terms of mathematical entities. A circle, for instance, is defined as a plane figure composed of a series of points, all of which are equidistant from a given point. No one has ever actually seen such a figure, however.

What people have actually seen are drawn figures that are more or less close approximations of the ideal circle. In fact, when mathematicians define a circle, the points referred to are not spatial points at all; they are logical points. They do not occupy space. Nevertheless, although the Form of a circle has never been seen—indeed, could never be seen—mathematicians and others do in fact know what a circle is. That they can define a circle is evidence that they know what it is. For Plato, therefore, the Form “circularity” exists, but not in the physical world of space and time. It exists as a changeless object in the world of Forms or Ideas, which can be known only by reason. Forms have greater reality than objects in the physical world both because of their perfection and stability and because they are models, resemblance to which gives ordinary physical objects whatever reality they have. Circularity, squareness, and triangularity are excellent examples, then, of what Plato meant by Forms. An object existing in the physical world may be called a circle or a square or a triangle only to the extent that it resembles (“participates in” is Plato's phrase) the Form “circularity” or “squareness” or “triangularity.”

Plato extended his theory beyond the realm of mathematics. Indeed, he was most interested in its application in the field of social ethics. The theory was his way of explaining how the same universal term can refer to so many particular things or events. The word justice, for example, can be applied to hundreds of particular acts because these acts have something in common, namely, their resemblance to, or participation in, the Form “justice.” An individual is human to the extent that he or she resembles or participates in the Form “humanness.” If “humanness” is defined in terms of being a rational animal, then an individual is human to the extent that he or she is rational. A particular act is courageous or cowardly to the extent that it participates in its Form. An object is beautiful to the extent that it participates in the Idea, or Form, of beauty. Everything in the world of space and time is what it is by virtue of its resemblance to, or participation in, its universal Form. The ability to define the universal term is evidence that one has grasped the Form to which that universal refers.

Plato conceived the Forms as arranged hierarchically; the supreme Form is the Form of the Good, which, like the sun in the myth of the cave, illuminates all the other Ideas. There is a sense in which the Form of the Good represents Plato's movement in the direction of an ultimate principle of explanation. Ultimately, the theory of Forms is intended to explain how one comes to know and also how things have come to be as they are. In philosophical language, Plato's theory of Forms is both an epistemological (theory of knowledge) and an ontological (theory of being) thesis.

Political Theory

The Republic, Plato's major political work, is concerned with the question of justice and therefore with the questions “what is a just state” and “who is a just individual?”

The ideal state, according to Plato, is composed of three classes. The economic structure of the state is maintained by the merchant class. Security needs are met by the military class, and political leadership is provided by the philosopher-kings. A particular person's class is determined by an educational process that begins at birth and proceeds until that person has reached the maximum level of education compatible with interest and ability. Those who complete the entire educational process become philosopher-kings. They are the ones whose minds have been so developed that they are able to grasp the Forms and, therefore, to make the wisest decisions. Indeed, Plato's ideal educational system is primarily structured so as to produce philosopher-kings.

Plato associates the traditional Greek virtues with the class structure of the ideal state. Temperance is the unique virtue of the artisan class; courage is the virtue peculiar to the military class; and wisdom characterizes the rulers. Justice, the fourth virtue, characterizes society as a whole. The just state is one in which each class performs its own function well without infringing on the activities of the other classes. Plato divides the human soul into three parts: the rational part, the will, and the appetites. The just person is the one in whom the rational element, supported by the will, controls the appetites. An obvious analogy exists here with the threefold class structure of the state, in which the enlightened philosopher-kings, supported by the soldiers, govern the rest of society.

Ethics

Plato's ethical theory rests on the assumption that virtue is knowledge and can be taught, which has to be understood in terms of his theory of Forms. As indicated previously, the ultimate Form for Plato is the Form of the Good, and knowledge of this Form is the source of guidance in moral decision making. Plato also argued that to know the good is to do the good. The corollary of this is that anyone who behaves immorally does so out of ignorance. This conclusion follows from Plato's conviction that the moral person is the truly happy person, and because individuals always desire their own happiness, they always desire to do that which is moral.

Art

Plato had an essentially antagonistic view of art and the artist, although he approved of certain religious and moralistic kinds of art. Again, his approach is related to his theory of Forms. A beautiful flower, for example, is a copy or imitation of the universal Forms “flowerness” and “beauty.” The physical flower is one step removed from reality, that is, the Forms. A picture of the flower is, therefore, two steps removed from reality. This also meant that the artist is two steps removed from knowledge, and, indeed, Plato's frequent criticism of the artists is that they lack genuine knowledge of what they are doing. Artistic creation, Plato observed, seems to be rooted in a kind of inspired madness.

Influence

Plato's influence throughout the history of philosophy has been monumental. When he died, Speusippus became head of the Academy. The school continued in existence until AD 529, when it was closed by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I, who objected to its pagan teachings. Plato's impact on Jewish thought is apparent in the work of the 1st-century Alexandrian philosopher Philo Judaeus. Neoplatonism, founded by the 3rd-century philosopher Plotinus, was an important later development of Platonism. The theologians Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and St. Augustine were early Christian exponents of a Platonic perspective. Platonic ideas have had a crucial role in the development of Christian theology and also in medieval Islamic thought .

During the Renaissance, the primary focus of Platonic influence was the Florentine Academy, founded in the 15th century near Florence. Under the leadership of Marsilio Ficino, members of the Academy studied Plato in the original Greek. In England, Platonism was revived in the 17th century by Ralph Cudworth and others who became known as the Cambridge Platonists. Plato's influence has been extended into the 20th century by such thinkers as Alfred North Whitehead, who once paid him tribute by describing the history of philosophy as simply “a series of footnotes to Plato.“

柏拉图（Plato,前427—前347）是古希腊最著名的哲学家和教育家，出生于雅典一个奴隶主贵族家庭。

　　柏拉图家境优裕，从小受到良好的教育。他的文法、修辞、写作成绩优秀，并对文学很感兴趣，写过不少诗歌及其他文学作品。他身体健壮、体力过人，非常喜爱体育活动，擅长多项运动项目。他也喜爱音乐和绘画，并有较高造诣。

　　柏拉图是苏格拉底的学生，跟随苏格拉底学习共8年，是苏格拉底的忠实信徒和亲密朋友。公元前399年，苏格拉底被诬告并处死，株连到柏拉图，柏拉图被迫离开雅典流亡国外，达12年之久。

　　他逃离雅典后游历了许多地方，如文明古国埃及、北非的希腊殖民地昔勒尼、意大利岛南部的城市塔林敦、西西里岛的城邦叙拉古等。在叙拉古由于与该城邦的僭主发生政治分歧，触怒了僭主，被卖为奴隶，幸遇朋友相助将他赎出，送回雅典，那时他已40岁。

　　在游历中，他接触了各国的政体，会见了许多著名学者，学习了各国的先进科学知识，这对于他日后的学术研究和教育工作具有重要意义。

　　回国以后，他在雅典城郊创办了一所学园，名叫阿卡德米（Academy）。他在这所学园里从事学术研究、著述和教学活动达40年，直到去世。

　　学园集教学和研究于一体，是当时希腊的第一所高等学府和研究中心，也是欧洲最早的高等教育机构。学园里研究和教授的学科很广泛，包括哲学、自然科学、人文科学、数学、天文学、音乐理论等。学员不仅要学习科学知识，还要进行体育和军事训练。这个学园不仅为雅典，也为希腊各城邦培养了大批政治和学术人才。学园的教学形式不仅采用苏格拉底的问答法，还采用讲演、自我钻研等其他方法。

　　柏拉图提出了比苏格拉底更为完整的教育理论。他的教育理论集中表现在他的最著名的一本著作《理想国》中。柏拉图认为当时希腊各城邦国家的政治制度都不够理想，弊端很多。于是他把当时希腊的各种政治制度以及当时希腊以外（如埃及等）的政治制度加以分析、比较、综合、总结，设计了自己的一种政治制度，作为自己的理想国家。这个“理想国”其实是一个奴隶主统治的等级森严的国家，而且是不可能实现的。不过其中也有不少很好的主张，这些主张对后世的政治有很大影响。《理想国》一书中有相当多的篇幅是谈教育的，所以教育界把它看成一本重要的教育著作。

　　在柏拉图的“理想国”中，奴隶不算人，没有任何权利。奴隶主和自由民才有公民权，但他们是分成严格等级的。第一等级是“护国者”，老天在铸造他们时在他们身上加入了黄金，他们是国家的最高统治者，负责监护国家和处理政事。第二等级是“保国者”，老天在铸造他们时加入了白银，他们也是统治者，负责抵御敌人，保卫国家。第三等级是“供养者”，老天在铸造他们时加入了铜和铁，他们是农民、手艺人和生意人，他们的任务是用产品去供养前两种人。柏拉图认为，要使国家长治久安，这三种人必须各安其位，各司其职。

　　柏拉图非常重视教育，认为抓好教育应是统治者的头等大事。他主张教育应该由国家来办理，由国家实行严格控制，教师应由国家聘请，教什么内容应由国家审查。他认为，所有公民，不分男女，不论是统治者还是被统治者（奴隶除外），都应从小受到强制性的教育。他提出的教育内容非常广泛，主张受教育者应该德、智、体和谐发展。他提倡早期教育，是最早提出胎教的人。按照他的主张，儿童受学前教育应该愈早愈好。学前教育应以游戏为主。

　　儿童从七岁至十七八岁应该受普通教育。普通教育的内容应包括音乐和体育。这里的音乐教育除了音乐和舞蹈外，还包括读、写、算等文化知识，以及文学、诗歌、艺术等内容。体育不仅包括体操等运动项目，还包括军事训练。

　　18～20岁的青年，经过筛选，一部分要受到高一级的教育。这一阶段的教育以军事体育训练为主，还要学习理论知识和自然科学知识，如算术、几何学、天文学、音乐理论。

　　经过另一次筛选，少数20～30岁的青年将被送到更高一级的学校受教育、主要是进行辩证法的训练，培养敏锐的抽象思维能力、丰富深邃的想像力和超群出众的记忆力。此外还要继续学习算术、几何学、天文学、音乐理论。受过这一级教育的人可以担任国家领导职务。

　　到了30岁的时候，再进行一次筛选，少数人可以继续学习，专攻哲学。经过5年学习，到了35岁，这些人就可以担任更重要的国家领导职务。他们经过15年的实际锻炼，到50岁，再进行严格的考试和挑选，其中少数人便可以成为“哲学王”，可以做国家最高统治者。

柏拉图，雅典贵族阿里斯顿之子，生于公元前427年，卒于公元前347年，终年八十岁。

柏拉图是古希腊最伟大的哲学家，西方哲学的鼻祖。他不仅是哲学家，而且是政治理论（他自己就卷入了实际政治）和社会学的奠基者，他还是物理学家和宇宙论学者。

他曾漫游世界多年，向许多伟大思想家学习，后来逐渐形成自己的哲学思想体系。公元前378年，他返回雅典，建立了世界闻名的柏拉图学园。学园创立不久，就成为当时的思想中心，许多学者慕名而至。柏拉图非常推崇数学的严密逻辑和美感，认为数学是锻炼人的思维的最佳途径，并将懂数学作为进入学园学习的必要条件。柏拉图不是数学家，但他创立的柏拉图学园却以其独特的风格培养了许多杰出数学家。

柏拉图的影响（无论好坏）是极其深远的。可以说，西方思想不是柏拉图哲学的就是反柏拉图哲学的，但很少是非柏拉图哲学的。

另外，柏拉图这个词还被用于柏拉图式恋爱，也称为柏拉图式爱情，指一种异性间的精神恋爱，追求心灵沟通，排斥肉欲。最早由Marsilio Ficino于15世纪提出，作为苏格拉底式爱情的同义词，用来指代苏格拉底和他学生之间的爱慕关系。

柏拉图认为：当心灵摒绝肉体而向往着真理的时候，这时的思想才是最好的。而当灵魂被肉体的罪恶所感染时，人们追求真理的愿望就不会得到满足。 当人类没有对肉欲的强烈需求时，心境是平和的，肉欲是人性中兽性的表现，是每个生物体的本性，人之所以是所谓的高等动物，是因为人的本性中，人性强于兽性，精神交流是美好的、是道德的．

亚里士多德的老师，头发卷卷，好象很博学的样子，呵呵，就是很博学啊

柏拉图 有n个 你说的哪一个？把全名写上

一个思想家